El Inicio de la Investigación Científica de la Comunicación Social en América Latina

por: José Luis Ortiz Garza / Universidad Panamericana

(for English, click here)

Preparing poll

La Oficina de Asuntos Inter-Americanos

El 16 de agosto de 1940 el Presidente Roosevelt creó lo que más tarde se conocería como Office of Inter-American Affairs [OIAA])” y nombró Director a Nelson Rockefeller. Un año antes de que la OIAA iniciara formalmente sus operaciones, Rockefeller decidió obtener información confiable de América Latina sobre propaganda del Eje, actitudes hacia los Estados Unidos, y hábitos de consumo de comunicación. De inmediato contactó con el Dr. George Gallup y firmaron un contrato por 250 mil dólares mediante el cual Hadley Cantril, socio de Gallup y Director de la “Oficina de Princeton para Investigación de Opinión Pública”, se responsabilizaría del proyecto. Otros reconocidos científicos como Leonard Doob (de la Universidad de Yale), y Lloyd A. Free (Editor de la revista Public Opinion Quarterly) fueron incorporados a la compañía “American Social Surveys, Inc.”[i].

Para evitar sospechas se constituyó la “Oficina de Información para las Exportaciones” de la “American Association of Advertising Agencies”, y se nombraron a sus “observadores” en América Latina. Tras una intensa capacitación en diversas metodologías y técnicas para el análisis de la comunicación, estos pioneros en comunicología partieron a sus destinos hacia principios de febrero de 1941[ii].

Lloyd A. Free: el pionero

Mientras los “observadores” preparaban maletas o se establecían, Lloyd A. Free, realizó en Brasil la primera encuesta de América Latina que pudiera “ser reputada como completa y confiable”. Free trabajó incansablemente de febrero a mayo de 1941: tomó una muestra de 2,342 personas, y contrató, capacitó, y supervisó a los encuestadores. Su reporte final describió los hábitos brasileños de consumo de medios de comunicación y sus opiniones sobre la colaboración con Estados Unidos[iii].

Radio survey

No obstante que Lloyd A. Free fue el pionero en la investigación científica de la comunicación social en Latinoamérica, muchos de los “observadores” merecen esa misma distinción. Fueron: George H. Landes, publicista de la J. Walter Thompson, establecido en Argentina, responsable también de Paraguay y Uruguay; el ex-ejecutivo de la “Standard Oil Co.” Harald Corson, destinado a México; Jack Fahy cofundador y editor de la revista The Hemisphere, destinado a Colombia y a Centroamérica Charles Lee ejecutivo en Brasil y Cuba de la “IT&T Corp”, encargado de Perú y Bolivia; Eugene Warner, quien dejó su trabajo como Editor de la Sección Dominical del Washington Times Herald, para irse a Chile; Roy Nash, autor del libro The Conquest of Brazil, destinado a este país [posible colaborador de Free en la protoencuesta], y George Massey, asignado a Cuba[iv].

Los comunicólogos de la OIAA desarrollaron múltiples funciones: recortes de las principales noticias y editoriales; uso de los materiales de la OIAA; informes de todos los medios, detallando audiencia, circulación, ingresos, posturas editoriales, etc. Conviene destacar las encuestas de opinión, que buscaron explorar las actitudes hacia los Estados Unidos y los beligerantes, reacciones a algunas batallas, expectativas sobre la posguerra, etc. La primera, realizada en junio de 1941, midió las actitudes y sentimientos suscitados por el ataque de Alemania a Rusia. Además de recabar los resultados locales, Hadley Cantril preparó el primer reporte panamericano de los sentimientos sobre un tema específico[v].

Los observadores sirvieron también como espías y usaron sus reportes para presionar a los medios Pro-Eje. En México, Corson contribuyó a un boicot de anunciantes aliados contra los periódicos Excélsior, y Últimas Noticias[vi], contra la revista Hoy y contra la radiodifusora XEW, precursora del imperio multimedia “Televisa”, acusada de permitir que los nazis la utilizaran para enviar mensajes en clave[vii].

Radio coverage report

Las oficinas de los observadores fueron cerradas el 3 de marzo de 1942, y muchos de ellos continuaron sus trabajos dentro de las Embajadas de los Estados Unidos[viii].

Notas
Para información biográfica de estos pioneros, véase: Everett M. Rogers, A History of Communication Study: A Biographical Approach (New York: The Free Press, 1997), p. 220, 267-271, 381; Christopher Simpson, Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare 1945-1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 26, 87, 130-131 and Brett Gary, “Communication Research, the Rockefeller Foundation, and Mobilization for the War on Words, 1938-1944,” Journal of Communication 46:3 (Summer 1996): 124-147, 125.
Donald W. Rowland, “History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs”, Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1947, pp 1-7, y 245-247.
National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland, (NARA), Record Group (RG) 229 Box 135, 2. Surveys 9, “Lloyd Free’s Report (February-May 1941)”
NARA RG 229, Box 137, 2. de Cantril to Spaeth, Marzo 19, 1941. Massey, debido al Embajador Estadounidense George Messersmith, renunció en diciembre de 1941 y fue reemplazado John Corbin. Cfr. NARA, RG 229, Box 139, de McClintock a Corson, Febrero 3 de 1942. Una nueva lista producida pocos meses después contenía algunos cambios en Brasil, Chile, Bolivia y Ecuador: cfr. NARA, RG 229, Box 137,2: “Names and Addresses of Observers”.
Véase NARA, RG 229, Box 138, #13”, de Corson a Cantril, Julio 2 de 1941; NARA RG 229, Box 139, #21, “Reactions in Latin America”, de Cantril a Spaeth, et. al, agosto 12 de 1941.
Cfr. NAW, RG 59, 812.911/307, de Daniels a Secretario de Estado”, Abril 10, 1941; NAW, RG 59, 812.917/46, de Robbins a Duggan, Septiembre 22, 1941.
NARA, RG 229, Box 139, de Miller a Corson, octubre 17, 1941.
NARA, RG 229, Box 139, de Robbins a Rockefeller et al. Marzo 9, 1942, y Donald Rowland, op. cit., p. 252. Corson se incorporó a la Embajada Americana: Ibid, de McGurk a Secretario de Estado, circa Febrero 1942.

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Imágenes
Las fotografías y el mapa de cobertura radiofónica están tomadas de: National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 229, OIAA Files.

José Luis Ortiz Garza es Profesor y Director de Investigación de la Escuela de Comunicación en la Universidad Panamericana. Autor de tres libros sobre historia de los medios de comunicación en México.

Favor de comentar.

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by: José Luis Ortiz Garza / Universidad Panamericana

The Office of Inter-American Affairs

In the summer of 1940, the American Government created what later on would be known as the “Office of Inter-American Affairs” [OIAA], and named Nelson A. Rockefeller as Coordinator. Around a year before the OIAA formally started, Rockefeller decided to obtain reliable information about the Axis propaganda, attitudes towards the USA, and communication habits in Latin America. He contacted George Gallup and signed a $250,000 contract under which Hadley Cantril, an associate of Gallup’s would be in charge of the project. Other well known communication scholars such as Leonard Doob, and Lloyd A. Free were hired by the “American Social Surveys, Inc.”[i]

In order to avoid suspicions, the operation was covered up by a contract with the “American Association of Advertising Agencies” through the “Research Division” of its “Export Information Bureau” that would have “observers” in Latin America. After being trained by the aforementioned scholars in communication methods and techniques, they set off in early 1941.[ii]

Lloyd A. Free: The Pioneer

It was Lloyd A. Free who performed in Brazil the first national survey in Latin America which could “make any claim of completeness and reliability.” Free worked tirelessly from February to May 1941: he construed a representative sample of 2,342 people, and hired, trained, transported and super-vised the interviewers. His final report described the Brazilians mass media consumption habits, and their opinions regarding the cooperation with the USA.[iii]

Notwithstanding the credit that Lloyd A. Free deserves as the trailblazer in scientific mass com-munications research in Latin America, most of the OIAA´s representatives get also that same distinction in their respective countries. They were: George Landes, an advertising executive assigned to Argentina, also in charge of Paraguay; Harald Corson, a former executive of Standard Oil Co., sent to Mexico; Jack Fahy, editor of the magazine The Hemisphere, sent to Colombia and Central America; Charles Todd Lee, who worked in Brazil and Cuba for the IT&T, sent to Peru, also in charge of Bolivia; Eugene Warner, former Sunday Editor of the Washington Times Herald assigned to Chile; Roy Nash, author of the book The Conquest of Brazil, in charge of this country [who probably worked in Free´s pioneering survey], and George Massey, posted to Cuba.[iv]

The observers performed functions such as a clipping service on local news, editorial opinion, and uses of OIAA´s materials; surveys on newspapers and radio stations, covering audience or circulation, editorial policies, etc. A special mention should be given to the public opinion surveys that explored the attitudes towards the USA and the belligerents, reactions to war battles, expectations about world in the post-war age, etc. The first one, made in June 1941, gauged the sentiments on the attack of Russia by Germany. Besides gathering the results for every country, Cantril prepared a Pan-American report, the first broad picture of the Latin American feelings about a single public issue.[v]

Some of the observer´s tasks were tied to espionage and served to exert pressure on pro-Axis media vehicles. In Mexico the reports of Corson led to an advertiser’s boycott to the important newspapers Excélsior and Ultimas Noticias,[vi] to Hoy, the most influential magazine, and to the radio station “XEW,” bedrock of the current multimedia empire Televisa, accused of helping the Nazis.[vii]

The offices of the observers were dismantled on March 3, 1942, and many of them continued their investigations on communication within the American Embassies.[viii]

Notes
For biographical references of the communication scholars, see: Everett M. Rogers, A History of Communication Study: A Biographical Approach (New York: The Free Press, 1997), p. 220, 267-271, 381; Christopher Simpson, Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare 1945-1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 26, 87, 130-131 and Brett Gary, “Communication Research, the Rockefeller Foundation, and Mobilization for the War on Words, 1938-1944,” Journal of Communication 46:3 (Summer 1996): 124-147, 125.
Its name was changed in 1941 and in March 1945, when it became “Office of Inter-American Affairs” (OIAA): Donald W. Rowland, History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1947).
National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland, (NARA), Record Group (RG) 229, Box 135, 2. Surveys 9, “Lloyd Free’s Report (February-May 1941).”
NARA, RG 229, Box 137, 2., From Cantril to Spaeth, March 19, 1941. Massey, because of Ambassador George Messersmith´s complaints, resigned in December 1941 and his assistant John Corbin stood in for him. Cfr. NARA, RG 229, Box 139, from McClintock to Corson, February 3, 1942. A new list produced few months later indicated some changes in Brazil, Chile, Bolivia and Ecuador: cfr. NARA, RG 229, Box 137,2: “Names and Addresses of Observers.”
Cfr. NARA, RG 229, Box 138, Folder “American Social Surveys Export Information Bureau # 13”, from Corson to Cantril, July 2, 1941; NARA, RG 229, Box 139, # 21, from Cantril to Spaeth et al, August 12, 1941.
Cfr. NAW, RG 59, 812.911/307, From Daniels to Secretary of State, April 10, 1941; NAW, RG 59, 812.917/46. From Robbins to Duggan, September 22, 1941.
NARA, RG 59, 812.74/428; From Corson to Miller, October 17, 1941.
NARA, RG 229, Box 139, from Robbins to Rockefeller et al. March 9, 1942, and Donald W. Rowland, op. cit., p. 242. Harald J. Corson was hired by the American Embassy in Mexico City: Ibid, from McGurk to Secretary of State, circa February 1942.

Gary, Brett, “Communication Research, the Rockefeller Foundation, and Mobilization for the War on Words, 1938-1944,” Journal of Communication 46:3 (Summer 1996): 124-147.

National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland, Record Group 229, “Records of the office of Inter-American Affairs [OIAA]”

Rogers, Everett M., A History of Communication Study: A Biographical Approach, New York: The Free Press, 1997.

Rowland, Donald W., History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1947.

Simpson Christopher, Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare 1945-1960, New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Image Credits: (located in primary Spanish text)
Images provided by author from the National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 229, OIAA Files.

Author: José Luis Ortiz Garza is Professor and Research Director of the School of Communications at Universidad Panamericana, Mexico City, and author of the three books on media history in Mexico.